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ABSTRACT

Diabetes is a chronic disease characterized by immune dysfunction, which can lead to various complications. Terminalia catappa, a plant with traditional medicinal uses, has been reported to possess immunomodulatory effects. This study investigated the effects of Terminalia catappa extract on immune responses in diabetic rats. The extract was found to significantly improve immune responses, including cytokine production and immune cell activation, compared to a placebo. A positive correlation was also observed between the duration of diabetes and immune responses in rats treated with Terminalia catappa extract. These findings suggest that Terminalia catappa extract may be a potential adjunct therapy for diabetes management, particularly in improving immune responses. Further studies are recommended to confirm these findings and explore the mechanisms by which Terminalia catappa extract exerts its immunomodulatory effects.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease characterized by high blood sugar levels, which can lead to complications such as cardiovascular disease, kidney damage, and immune dysfunction (World Health Organization, 2020). The global prevalence of diabetes has been increasing steadily, with an estimated 422 million adults living with the disease in 2019 (International Diabetes Federation, 2019). In Nigeria, the prevalence of diabetes is also on the rise, with an estimated 2.5 million people living with the disease (International Diabetes Federation, 2019).

The defense system, comprising the innate and adaptive immune responses, plays a crucial role in protecting the body against infections and diseases (Kumar et al., 2019). The innate immune response is the first line of defense against pathogens, providing immediate protection through physical barriers, phagocytic cells, and antimicrobial peptides (Kumar et al., 2019). The adaptive immune response, on the other hand, is a specific response that involves the activation of T-cells and B-cells, which recognize and eliminate pathogens (Kumar et al., 2019).

However, diabetes can weaken the defense system, making individuals more susceptible to infections (Shanmugam et al., 2019). Hyperglycemia, a hallmark of diabetes, can impair the functioning of immune cells, including neutrophils, macrophages, and T-cells (Shanmugam et al., 2019). Additionally, diabetes can lead to oxidative stress, inflammation, and tissue damage, further compromising the defense system (Shanmugam et al., 2019).

Studies have shown that individuals with diabetes are at a higher risk of developing infections, including urinary tract infections, pneumonia, and tuberculosis (Shanmugam et al., 2019). Moreover, diabetes can increase the severity and duration of infections, leading to increased morbidity and mortality (Shanmugam et al., 2019). The economic burden of diabetes and its complications is also significant, with an estimated global expenditure of USD 1.3 trillion in

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