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EFFECT OF REPRISAL ON HERDSMEN

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION 

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The conflicts between farmers and herders have been in existence since the pre-colonial period; however, the conflicts were well managed and controlled such that their impact was not felt on the internal security and agriculture of Nigeria in general as it is today (Benjaminsen & Ba, 2009). There is a long history of herders migrating to the West as a result of which they have relationships with sedentary farmers and co-exist and cooperate with shared available resources (Cabot, 2017). Historical record of pre colonial farmers’ and herders’ conflicts is scanty; however, it has been argued that between 12th and 13th century, there was competition and symbiotic relation between the two groups (A. G. Adebayo, 1991).

The social structure was also designed to accommodate “Ruga.” The purpose of creating “Ruga'' was to regulate grazing activities and to resolve any conflict between and within the farmers and Fulani group (Ellwood, 1995).

The colonial farmers and herders conflict marked the beginning of modifications in the physical and social landscapes. This reduced the farmers’ and herders’ compatibility and reduced the informal land tenure and resource use that had been in place. The colonialists brought systems of conflict management which were alien to locals and served the purposes of colonial masters. (Davidheiser & Luna, 2008). This reduced indigenous land ownership and eventual resource scarcity, and increased environmental degradation (Adeoye, 2017).

Nigeria has witnessed and is still witnessing a series of farmers–herdsmen conflict since the advent of the Democratic government in 1999. The majority of this conflict is within Northern Nigeria, which is predominantly agrarian (farmers and herders), and in some parts of the southern part of the country (Hassan et al., 2018). In many of these conflicts, lives and properties have been lost, farm products were destroyed, people were displaced, and governments at various levels (local, state, and federal) have spent so much money on setting up either committees for resolutions or resettlement camps for the displaced persons. Finances that ought to be used in the development of other sectors are used in addressing farmers–herdsmen conflict. The implications of these conflicts are seriously felt on the national economy in terms of the resources invested on the resolutions as well as the manifestation of the unemployment it aggravated (Odoh & Chigozie, 2012).

International and local media reports have confirmed the death of so many lives, which is the consequence of the farmers–herdsmen clash (Erondu & Nwakanma, 2018). The clashes have resulted in population displacement, low agricultural output, and subsequently increase in the level of unemployment (Odoh & Chilaka, 2012). Agricultural sectors which largely accommodate productive youths and adults have become strained and volatile. Farmers–herdsmen conflicts have been attributed to the prevailing migration of people from rural centers (local government), which causes the urban centers to compete for the available opportunities (Odoh & Chilaka, 2012). Agricultural sector’s contribution to the growth and development of the Nigeria economy cannot be overemphasized (Olaoye, 2014). As such, inadequate supplies of agricultural products will consequently lead to worries, unrest, dearth of food securities, and adverse effects on national economy and security. Conversely, availability of agricultural products will result in vibrant health, stable mental and physical development of the citizens, and national productivity (Kugelman, 2012). It is a known fact that agricultural practices (farming and cattle rearing) remain the most dominant occupation of the people living in the entire Zamfara State, which included the Tsafe and Zurmi local government area. It therefore implies that any challenge that affected farming certainly would have an adverse effect on the livelihood of the people.

The menaces of cattle rustling and banditry activities have become a serious threat to the safety and lives of the entire people of Zamfara State (including Anka and Maradun local government area). These have led to loss of so many lives and destruction of properties. Cattle rustling has been described as the act of stealing cattle primarily for economic gain (Abdullahi & Madappalli, 2017). It has been described as an act that resulted from the failure of leaders to curb the menaces of social and economic upheavals (Mohammed & Ibrahim, 2015). It has also been conceived as a criminal act of taking cows for economic purposes (Okoli & Okpaleke, 2014). Banditry, on the contrary, has been described as the act of robbery or violent crime especially in an area where the rule of law has broken down. It mostly involved the use of coercion and threat to rob, rape, and kill (Okoli & Okpaleke, 2014).

Cattle rustling and banditry have been facilitated and made sophisticated by the proliferation of arms and dagger (Funteh, 2019). It has developed to become an organized crime that goes beyond national to transnational (Okoli & Okpaleke, 2014). Statistics have shown that so many cattle have been stolen as a result of these organized crimes (Ibrahim et al., 2016). These vices have also resulted in various reprisal killings, raiding of villages, and raping and kidnapping of men and women. As a result, many (both farmers and herdsmen) have decided to migrate to avoid the level of uncertainty and threat to security and safety which have prevailed in the community.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

In regions where conflicts involving pastoralist communities occur, reprisal actions against herding populations have become prevalent. However, there is a lack of comprehensive understanding regarding the multifaceted impacts of these reprisals on herders, encompassing socio-economic, psychological, and security dimensions. This knowledge gap hinders effective conflict resolution efforts and sustainable peacebuilding initiatives. Therefore, there is a pressing need to investigate the specific challenges faced by herding communities in the aftermath of reprisal attacks, including their economic losses, psychological well-being, and the broader implications for regional security dynamics. Addressing this gap in research will provide valuable insights for policymakers, humanitarian agencies, and local communities striving to mitigate the adverse effects of conflicts on herders and promote inclusive approaches to peace and reconciliation.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objective of this study is to determine the effect of reprisal on herdsmen

Specific objectives include;

1. To investigate the immediate and long-term socio-economic consequences of reprisal actions on herding communities.

2. To examine the psychological impact of reprisals on herders, including trauma, stress, and coping mechanisms.

3. To analyze the implications of reprisal dynamics on the security situation within pastoralist areas and its effects on intergroup relations.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. What are the immediate economic repercussions of reprisals on herders, including loss of livestock, destruction of property, and displacement?

2. How do herders experience and cope with the psychological trauma resulting from reprisal attacks, and what support mechanisms are available to them?

3. What is the relationship between retaliatory actions and the overall security environment in pastoralist regions, and how does it influence intergroup dynamics and conflict escalation?

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

1. Reprisal actions against herding communities lead to significant economic losses, exacerbating poverty and undermining livelihood sustainability.

2. Herders exposed to reprisal attacks experience higher levels of psychological distress compared to those unaffected, with limited access to mental health support exacerbating their vulnerability.

3. Increased incidences of reprisal attacks contribute to heightened tensions and insecurity within pastoralist regions, leading to further polarization and conflict escalation among different ethnic and herding groups.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of studying the effects of reprisal on herders lies in its potential to inform targeted interventions and policies aimed at mitigating the adverse impacts of conflicts on pastoralist communities. By comprehensively understanding the socio-economic, psychological, and security repercussions of reprisal attacks on herding populations, policymakers, humanitarian organizations, and local communities can develop more effective strategies for conflict resolution, peacebuilding, and sustainable development. Addressing the specific challenges faced by herders following reprisal actions can help prevent further escalation of violence, promote social cohesion, and foster resilience within affected communities. Moreover, this research can contribute to broader discussions on conflict dynamics, ethnic relations, and resource management in pastoralist regions, offering valuable insights for academia, policymakers, and practitioners striving to build peaceful and inclusive societies in conflict-affected areas. Ultimately, the study's findings have the potential to positively impact the lives and livelihoods of herders and contribute to fostering lasting peace and stability in these regions.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on examining the effect of reprisal on herders within the context of conflicts in Northern Nigeria. It aims to investigate the socio-economic, psychological, and security implications of reprisal actions on herding communities in the region. By conducting in-depth analysis and utilizing Northern Nigeria as a case study, the research seeks to provide insights into the specific challenges faced by herders in this context, contributing to a nuanced understanding of conflict dynamics in pastoralist areas.

1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Several limitations may affect the generalizability of the findings, including the specific cultural, social, and political context of Northern Nigeria. Additionally, constraints such as access to data, resource limitations, and security concerns may impact the comprehensiveness of the research. Furthermore, the study's focus on a single geographical region may limit the applicability of the findings to other contexts outside of Northern Nigeria. Despite these limitations, the study endeavors to provide valuable insights into the effect of reprisal on herders, contributing to the broader discourse on conflict resolution and peacebuilding in pastoralist communities.

1.9 DEFINITION OF TERMS

1. Farmers: refers to persons or people who own or manage a farm. This implies those who work primarily on the farm for the purpose of subsistence, sustaining, and maintaining their life

2. Herdsmen: refers to persons or people who own or keep a herd of domesticated animals.

3. Conflict: refers to the inability of people to sustain and maintain peaceful and harmonious coexistence during social interactions.

4. Cattle Rustling: refers to the act of stealing cattle.

5. Insecurity: refers to the uncertainty, threat, lack of protection, and killings.

6. Banditry: refers to the act of robbery, killing, and violence especially in areas where there is breakdown of law.

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