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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1   Background of the Study

Traditional cultural practice reflects values and beliefs held by members of a community or social groupings for periods often spanning generations. Saba (1997)  noted that social groupings in the world have specific cultural practices and beliefs; some are beneficial to all members while others are harmful to a specific group such as women and girls’ Hence, Kiragu sees culture as part of human environment and a product of history which forms strong images in the minds of the people concerned  Ofonagoro (1996) viewed culture as the totality of the life of a people which could be assessed and comprehended in terms of how they create and re-create their lives both in the material and non-material sense of their social existence. Suffice it here to observe that culture represents the development of specific people in the society which is often equated with civilization.

From the above interpretation of culture, it is glaring that the concept has many definitions as there are writers on the subject. Hernlund (2000) posits that  culture  is  a totality of the way of life evolved by a  people in their  attempt to meet the challenges  in  their environment. In effect this is to say that culture embraces and includes challenges to social, political, economic, aesthetic and religious norms and mode of an organization, thus distinguishing a people from their neighbours. Also, from a different perspective Kisijia (2001) remarked that culture can be viewed as being complex and has a compelling nature which regulates all aspects of human life which include; for example,  food,  religion, dressing and language of the people, housing,  marriage  and  family relations.  Supporting, the above view, Seralgaldin (2002) noted that culture is a complex phenomena with distinctive spiritual, material,  intellectual and  emotional features that characterize  a  group or society. Hence, he maintained that the role of culture especially in traditional  settings  show that it is supreme and uncompromising, such as in discussing or sharing of lands  (which excludes women) and women obtaining permission from their husbands before accepting or adopting any contraceptive method. Unfortunately, these old  patriarchal  systems are still maintained in some communities, to subjugate women and render them vulnerable to obnoxious cultural practices which violate the “rights” of girls/women. For example female circumcision, which is rooted in a whole set of beliefs, values, social and cultural behaviour pattern of some societies, is often culturally determined and incidentally transmitted by women themselves simply because of cultural adherence and not  that  it serves any useful purpose to individual families or the society.

However the most revealing thing in the society is that culture is not static. Every culture has a dual tendency: A tendency towards stability and a tendency to change. Culture changes perpetually because the individuals in the society or the cultural architects constantly modify their cultural plans, improve and adapt their  behaviour to the caprices and exigencies of their physical, social, and ideological milieu (Gbotukama, 2002:17).

Hence, the definition of the essential elements of culture varies from time to time reflecting correct power structure and influences. The variety of culture bound practices harmful to women, otherwise, known as  harmful traditional practices reasonably fall under the rubric of 89violence against women which has direct effect on their health (Heise, 1998). Health, according to United Nations Organization (UNO) (1995) is a fundamental human right and not merely a social good. It is an asset for individuals  in the family, community and  nation irrespective of age, sex, origin  or race. It is sad to note that women are the foremost victims of old and die-hard traditional attitudes which militate against their health and well-being (Berhane, 1998). Women are arbitrarily deprived of their liberty to express and exercise their fundamental rights. For example, inspite of the high risk of maternal morbidity health and financial impact of traditional or too closely spaced birth; women often cannot exercise control over their own fertility.This is the reason why the United Nations International Children Education Fund (UNICEF) (1998) concluded that women were often deprived of good health right from birth.For example, in some traditional set up, pregnant and lactating mothers are made to abstain from nutritious foods such as eggs, snail which are regarded as taboo but are also necessary for the growth and development of the child.

The issue of traditional practices adversely affecting the health of women have been the focus for discussions at several international and national conferences, workshops and seminars where intervention approaches to eliminating harmful practices meted on women were extensively deliberated on. Notable among the legal interventions to eliminate harmful cultural practices were the Viennia 1993 World Conference on Human Rights pioneered by women’s health and women’s Rights Advocates who declared that women’s Rights  are Human right; the International Conference on Population and Development 1994 maintained that women have the right to control all aspects of their health and matters of sexual relations and reproduction; the Fourth World  Conference  on  Women Beijing 1995 was another pointer where women activists worldwide vehemently reacted to the plight of women and in collaboration with the United Nations mandated Governments in various countries to make legislations and policies against harmful cultural practices affecting the health of women/girls. The article of the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against women stressed on the need to promote women’s access to better health care and family planning services. Others include the AIDS Conference 2000 where it was resolved that women/girls should have access to the use of contraceptives and reproductive health counselling and the widows without Rights Conference 2001 which affirmed the right entitled every individual to be free from any form of inhuman treatment or discrimination. Nigeria is not left out in this struggle to eliminate harmful cultural practices.

The truth is that all hands (both the affected and unaffected) must be on deck to kill these man-made dragons especially at the grassroots levels, if a change is so desired. This is because in the words of Kisija  (2001  ) for  any meaningful change  in attitudes or behaviour to be achieved, the people themselves should be involved in the change process. And  that is  to say that the women whose health status are threatened by harmful cultural practices meted on them should be involved in this struggle to enable them assert their fundamental rights which include freedom of choice and existence among others. Even among different communities in Ebonyi state, cultural practices differs. That  is  the  intensity or extent  of HCP affecting the health of women which may differ from community to community For instance there are certain cultural practices that can be meted to married women but not to single mothers or widows.

Statement of the Problem

In spite of the National and International affirmations on improving the lot of women in human society there still exist tenacious harmful cultural practices, which are yet  to  be done away with particularly as they adversely affect the health of the women/girl-child. Till date high premium is still placed on the males while females are regarded as a household property, which can be used and manipulated at will For example, the traditional bride price confers a property identify on a woman and also awards the husband with the implicit ownership of the wife (Obianyo, 2000).

As it is typical of most patriarchal societies throughout the world, Nigeria inclusive; women are usually expected to be submissive, obedient and respectful to their husbands no matter how educated they may appear to be.  Women were never  heard  but only seen even on issues concerning their sexuality and reproductive rights. Hence women face complex health issues particularly those arising from pregnancy. Information from World Fertility Survey, (1999) revealed that in countries like Nigeria, gender-based disparity in health care received are largely the result of the girl-child being undervalued by their family. Women’s vulnerability to maltreatment in diverse forms are deeply rooted in the culture and  traditions  of their communities. Kamara (1991) observed that culturally prescribed traditions such as female-female marriage and male health providers not attending to pregnant  mothers may have serious health consequences on women. Unfortunately,  many  of  these  harmful practices still prevail in some societies. For example HCPs like widowhood rites is prevalent in six geopolitical zones in Nigeria,  Ebonyi  state  inclusive  (Akumadu, 2000). For example in the year 2003, a widow from Okwuato Ibeku in Aboh Mbaise LGA was alleged to have been stripped of everything she had including her children; by her in-laws (Daily Sun, October 2003). Also, sometime in the year 2004, in Isieke (Ebonyi state) a  widow  was brutally murdered by her brother in-law over the deceased  husband’s  piece  of  land. Likewise the practice of FGM has not been given up by excissors in Ebonyi state which ranked highest in the South-East geopolitical zone with a 76% score.

It is also a cruel irony that women themselves in the name of tradition  perpetuate  some of the harmful cultural practices like FGM, widowhood practices, female-female marriage. Perhaps these people put up a crafty defense mechanism, feel justified and even  seek social legitimacy for their conduct while the  victims  may  not  openly report/discuss their experiences. This culture of silence of the abused or oppressed may have  been the  reason why literature on various dimensions of  HCPs  is  yet  evolving.  Moreover, information on these practices may be concealed for myriad reasons such as fear-induced restrictions, ignorance, low literacy level/development, backwardness of the people and women’s subordinate positions imposed on them by the society.

Hence, the researcher was interested in establishing the impact of culture in women subjection by checking if HCPs exist in the communities under study; their impact on women’s health, reasons why these HCPs resisted change and intervention strategies needed to eliminate them.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of the study was to assess the harmful cultural practices affecting the health of rural women in Ebonyi state. Specifically, the study sought to:

(1)     find out those harmful cultural practices which are practiced in the study areas in Ebonyi State.

(2) determine why these HCPs exist in the study areas

(3) ascertain the consequences of these harmful cultural practices on women’s health

(4)     establish reasons why harmful cultural practices resist change in  contemporary  times.

Significance of the Study

The subjugation of women to harmful cultural practices even in contemporary times calls for urgent attention so as to adopt measures to alleviate or eliminate predominant authoritarian traditions imposed on women, which affects their health.

On this note, this study will be useful not only to mothers who are members of community based organizations in the study areas but also to all mothers in Nigeria, NGOs, faith based organization and other interest groups on types of HCPs in Ebonyi state,  why they exist and how they can be curbed.

From the findings of the work, more light will be shed on the terrible effect  of harmful cultural practices on women’s physical, psychological, social, emotional,  and  mental well-being. The changing times demands that a more  aggressive  approach  be adopted on these inhuman traditions as the surest way to eradicating them. Information on their consequences will sensitize all concerned and help to quicken them to take immediate action towards its extinction.

The findings of this work if published and implemented will certainly boost media sensitization of the general public condemnation of all kinds of HCPS against women.

The findings of this study will be most relevant to traditional rulers who  are  in charge of communities where such harmful practices prevail. The finding of this study will convict the traditional rulers to see the need/seriousness to improving  traditional  values status of females and to forgo all harmful cultural practices that may be detrimental to women’s health

Additionally, the findings of this work will be of immense importance to religious bodies like churches that are known for soul winning, use the word of God to preach righteousness, justice, love, peace, equality and equity. The findings will also reveal to the churches that women are still subjected to harmful cultural practices in  the  name  of  tradition of the people.

Research Questions

1.What harmful cultural practices are practiced in Ebonyi state?

2.Why do these HCPs exist in Ebonyi state?

3.What are the consequences of these harmful cultural practices on women’s health?

4.Why do these harmful cultural practices resist change in contemporary times?

5.What strategies can be adopted in eliminating these harmful cultural practices?

Hypotheses

The following null hypotheses were tested at (0.05) level of significance.

HO1: There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of respondents on  harmful cultural practices practiced based on location

HO2: There is no significant difference between the mean ratings of single and married parents respondents on why harmful cultural practices exist in their communities.

HO3: There will be no significant difference between the mean rating of educated and non- educated respondents on why harmful cultural practices resist change  in contemporary times.

Scope of the Study

The study was limited to investigating harmful cultural practices affecting the health of women in the communities under studied in Ebonyi State. Furthermore, the study recommended intervention strategies to eliminate such practices that adversely affect the health of women. In this study, an educated women refer tothosewhowentbeyond primary school. While non-educated ones are those who stopped at primary six and below.